the brain in Turkish is called beyni
Kad?n?n Beyni Nas?l ?al???r
Kad?n Beyni
In animals, the brain or encephalon (Greek for "in the skull"), is the control
center of the central nervous system, responsible for behavior. The brain is
located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory
apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception (balance), sense of taste, and
olfaction. While all vertebrates have a brain, most invertebrates have either a
centralized brain or collections of individual ganglia. Primitive animals such
as sponges do not have a brain at all. Brains can be extremely complex. For
example, the human brain contains more than 100 billion neurons, each linked to
as many as 10,000 other neurons.
Overview
Brain MRI
Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between the gray matter and white
matter. Gray matter consists primarily of the cell bodies of the neurons, while
white matter is comprised mostly of the fibers (axons) which connect neurons.
The axons are surrounded by a fatty insulating sheath called myelin (oligodendroglia
cells), giving the white matter its distinctive color. The outer layer of the
brain is gray matter called cerebral cortex. Deep in the brain, compartments of
white matter (fasciculi, fiber tracts), gray matter (nuclei) and spaces filled
with cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles) are found.
The brain innervates the head through cranial nerves, and it communicates with
the spinal cord, which innervates the body through spinal nerves. Nervous fibers
transmitting signals from the brain are called efferent fibers. The fibers
transmitting signals to the brain are called afferent (or sensory) fibers.
Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of
fibers).
The brain is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components
as cognition, perception, attention, memory and emotion. The brain is also
responsible for control of posture and movements. It makes possible cognitive,
motor and other forms of learning. The brain can perform a variety of functions
automatically, without the need for conscious awareness, such as coordination of
sensory systems (eg. sensory gating and multisensory integration), walking, and
homeostatic body functions such as blood pressure, fluid balance, and body
temperature.
Enlarge picture
Diagram showing the lobes of the human cerebral cortex and the cerebellum.
Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and spinal
cord. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple reflexes and basic locomotion, can
be executed under spinal cord control alone.
The brain undergoes transitions from wakefulness to sleep (and subtypes of these
states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain
functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge
consolidation, as the neurons appear to organize the day's stimuli during deep
sleep by randomly firing off the most recently used neuron pathways;
additionally, without sleep, normal subjects are observed to develop symptoms
resembling mental illness, even auditory hallucinations). Every brain state is
associated with characteristic brain waves.
Neurons are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas
Glial cells perform supporting function. In addition to being electrically
active, neurons constantly synthesize neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their
properties (guided by gene expression) under the influence of their input
signals. This plasticity underlies learning and adaptation. It is notable that
some unused neuron pathways (constructions which have become physically isolated
from other cells) may continue to exist long after the memory is absent from
consciousness, possibly developing the subconscious.
The study of the brain is known as neuroscience, a field of biology aimed at
understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the molecular up
to the psychological. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the
anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as biological psychology. This field
of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it affects
behavior.
History
M History of the brain
Early views on the function of the brain regarded it as little more than cranial
stuffing. In Ancient Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation
for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the heart that
was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the
first step of mummification, "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of
the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed
with drugs." Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed;
the brain is now known to be seat of intelligence, although idiomatic variations
of the former remain, as in memorizing something "by heart".
The first thoughts of the field of psychology actually came from ancient
philosophers, including Aristotle. As philosophers became more in tune with
medical research over time, the idea of psychology emerged. From that point,
different branches of psychology emerged with different individuals creating new
ideas.
Mind and brain
A distinction is not often made in the philosophy of mind between the mind and
the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading
to the mind-body problem. The brain is defined as the physical and biological
matter contained within the skull, responsible for all electrochemical neuronal
processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as
beliefs or desires. Many adhere to metaphysically dualistic approaches in which
the mind exists independently of the brain in some way, such #REDIRECT hayas a
soul or epiphenomenon or emergent phenomenon. Other dualisms maintain that the
mind is a distinct physical phenomenon, such as electromagnetic field, or a
quantum effect. Materialistic options include beliefs that mentality is behavior
or function or, in the case of computationalists, computer software (with the
brain playing the role of hardware). Idealism, the belief that all is mind,
still has some adherents. At the other extreme, eliminative materialists believe
minds do not exist at all, and mentalistic language will be replaced by
neurological terminology.
Comparative anatomy
Enlarge picture
A mouse brain.
Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the arthropods (insects,
crustaceans, arachnids, and others), the cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and
similar mollusks), and the craniates (vertebrates and hagfish). The brain of
arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend
through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three
divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing.
The brain of craniates develops from the anterior section of a single dorsal
nerve cord, which later becomes the spinal cord. In craniates, the brain is
protected by the bones of the skull.
Mammals have a six-layered neocortex (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in
addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex. In mammals,
increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more
advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater
number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit
inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller
volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when
completely pushed together. The folds are called gyri, while the spaces between
the folds are called sulci.
In birds, the part of the brain that functionally corresponds to the neocortex
is called nidopallium and derives from a different part of the brain. Some birds
(like corvids and parrots) have intelligence equal to great apes, but even in
these, the brain region that forms the mammalian neocortex is in fact almost
entirely absent.
Although the general histology of the brain is similar from person to person,
the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross embryological divisions
of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions,
and other structures differs between species.
Insects
In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the
deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and
process visual stimuli. The protocerebrum contains the mushroom bodies, which
respond to smell, and the central body complex. In some species such as bees,
the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The
deutocerebrum includes the antennal lobes, which are similar to the mammalian
olfactory bulb, and the mechanosensory neuropils which receive information from
touch receptors on the head and antennae. The antennal lobes of flies and moths
are quite complex.
Cephalopods
In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the
subesophageal mass, separated by the esophagus. The supra- and subesophageal
masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal
lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes. The large optic lobes are sometimes
not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and
are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform
much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain.
Mammals and other vertebrates
The telencephalon (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This
is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what
most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the
fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance.
In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the metencephalon is the highest
center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend,
in the brain between the brain stem and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not
have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain
structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of
differences.
Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is
known to be involved in the control of movement, and is connected by thick white
matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the pons.<ref name="martin" /> The
cerebrum has two cerebral hemispheres. The cerebellum also has hemispheres. The
telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, another large
white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the olfactory bulb
is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is
relatively small.
Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by bilaterally symmetrical
encephalization. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex
organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates
develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern
species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with
gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also
contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most
regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<ref
name="martin" />
Vertebrate brain regions
(See related article at List of regions in the human brain)
Enlarge picture
Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain. These
regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
structures.
According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development,
chordate brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five
total divisions:
* Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
* Myelencephalon
* Metencephalon
* Mesencephalon (midbrain)
* Prosencephalon (forebrain)
* Diencephalon
* Telencephalon
The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such
as:
* Limbic system
* Sensory systems
* Visual system
* Olfactory system
* Gustatory system
* Auditory system
* Somatosensory system
* Motor system
* Associative areas
In recent years it was realized that certain birds have developed high
intelligence entirely convergently from mammals such as humans. Hence, the
functional areas of the avian brain have been redefined by the Avian Brain
Nomenclature Consortium. See also Bird intelligence.
Humans
Enlarge picture
Animation showing the human brain with the lobes highlighted
M human brain
The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several
important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those
of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is
especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral
cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the
neocortex—especially to the prefrontal cortex—is larger than in all other
mammals (indeed larger than in all animals, although only in mammals has the
neocortex evolved to fulfill this kind of function).
Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is
similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to
stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the
body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural
circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex
and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive
number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of parallel processing.
Neurobiology
The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glia, both of
which contain several different cell types which perform different functions.
Interconnected neurons form neural networks (or neural ensembles). These
networks are similar to man-made electrical circuits in that they contain
circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These
do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits,
however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons. These
highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of perception,
different types of action, and higher cognitive function.
Histology
Neuron
Dendrite
Soma
Axon
Nucleus
Node of
Ranvier
Axon Terminal
Schwann cell
Myelin sheath
Structure of a typical neuron
Neurons are the cells that generate action potentials and convey information to
other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells.
In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1
proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support
system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the
neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of
glia in the brain are present in the entire nervous system. Exceptions include
the oligodendrocytes which myelinate neural axons (a role performed by Schwann
cells in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes
insulates the axons of some neurons. White matter in the brain is myelinated
neurons, while grey matter contains mostly cell soma, dendrites, and
unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled
with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred
to as the neuropil.
In mammals, the brain is surrounded by connective tissues called the meninges, a
system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered
covering is composed of (from the outside in) the dura mater, arachnoid mater,
and pia mater. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often
considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the
subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid, a substance that protects
the nervous system. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through the
perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are
joined tightly, forming the blood-brain barrier which protects the brain from
toxins that might enter through the blood.
The brain is bathed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates between
layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called ventricles. It
is important both chemically for metabolism and mechanically for
shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The mass
and density of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own
weight if unsupported by the CSF. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the
physical stress caused by the brain’s mass.
Function
Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of
the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous
system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A
similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control
important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent
and efferent nerves (with the exception of the cranial nerves) are connected to
the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain.
Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify
potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. Visual, touch, and
auditory sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the
thalamus and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each
sensory system. The visual system, the auditory system, and the somatosensory
system. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various
parts of the olfactory system. Taste is routed through the brainstem and then to
other portions of the gustatory system.
To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control.
The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the motor cortex,
cerebellum, and the basal ganglia. The system eventually projects to the spinal
cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many
involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many
automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal
cord alone.
Brains also produce a portion of the body's hormones that can influence organs
and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones
produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone
production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called
the pituitary gland.
It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex
interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing
in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and limbic
functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates,
advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the
brain.
Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by
the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a
general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the
new information. This focusing of cognition is known as attention. Cognitive
priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger,
fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy
related to the processing of threats is the fight-or-flight response mediated by
the amygdala and other limbic structures.
Pathology
Enlarge picture
A human brain showing frontotemporal lobar degeneration causing frontotemporal
dementia.
Clinically, death is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG.
Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing
major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for
example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in
youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant edema
than by the impact itself. Stroke, caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood
vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage.
Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather
than injuries. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease,
Parkinson's disease, motor neurone disease, and Huntington's disease are caused
by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement
control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases
can be treated. Mental illnesses, such as clinical depression, schizophrenia,
bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder are brain diseases that
impact personality and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function.
These disorders may be treated by psychiatric therapy, pharmaceutical
intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness
varies significantly among individuals.
Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by viruses and bacteria.
Infection of the meninges, the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to
meningitis. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also known as mad cow disease), is
deadly in cattle and humans and is linked to prions. Kuru is a similar
prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the
ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to
avoid cannibalism. Viral or bacterial causes have been reported in multiple
sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and are established causes of encephalopathy,
and encephalomyelitis.
Many brain disorders are congenital. Tay-Sachs disease, Fragile X syndrome, and
Down syndrome are all linked to genetic and chromosomal errors. Malfunctions in
the embryonic development of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, drug
use, nutritional deficiencies, and disease during a mother's pregnancy.
Certain brain disorders are treated by brain neurosurgeons while others are
treated by neurologists and psychiatrists.
Study of the brain
Fields of study
Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a
biological and computational perspective. Psychology seeks to understand
behavior and the brain. The terms neurology and psychiatry usually refer to
medical applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. Cognitive
science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that
concern themselves with the brain, such as computer science (artificial
intelligence and similar fields) and philosophy.
Methods of observation
M neuroimaging
Electrophysiology
Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and
drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity
of individual neurons or groups of neurons.
EEG
By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity
of the cortex in a technique known as electroencephalography (EEG). EEG measures
the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only
detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical
activity.
MEG
Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to
measure the magnetic field directly in a technique known as
magnetoencephalography (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution as
EEG but much better spatial resolution, although admittedly not as good as fMRI.
The main advantage over fMRI is a direct relationship between neural activation
and measurement.
fMRI and PET
Enlarge picture
A scan of the brain using fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in blood flow in
the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be
distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a
noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on
BOLD; Blood Oxygen Level Dependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occur
in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent
various neuronal activities (metabolism of synaptic reuptake). Similarly, a
positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor glucose and oxygen
metabolism as well as neurotransmitter activity in different areas within the
brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region.
Behavioral
Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can
only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in
all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the
location of any trauma, lesion, or tumor within the brain, brain stem, or spinal
cord.
Anatomical
Autopsy analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and protein
expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living
creature and is widely used in both research and medicine.
Other matters
Computer scientists have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the
structure of neuron connections in the brain. Some artificial intelligence
research seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain
mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success.
Creating algorithms to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the
brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly
interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and
sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence
models the brain using the mathematical tools of chaos theory and dynamical
systems. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of
the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial
intelligence.
Brain as food
Enlarge picture
Goat brain prior to being cooked
Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For
example, in the Southern United States canned pork brain in gravy can be
purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with
scrambled eggs to produce the famous "Eggs n' Brains". The brain of animals also
features in French cuisine such as in the dish tête de veau, or head of calf.
Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and jaw, the full
meal includes the brain, tongue, and glands. Similar delicacies from around the
world include Mexican tacos de sesos made with cattle brain as well as squirrel
brain in the US South. The Anyang tribe of Cameroon practiced a tradition in
which a new tribal chief would consume the brain of a hunted gorilla while
another senior member of the tribe would eat the heart. Indonesian cuisine
specialty in Minangkabau cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk
named gulai otak (beef brain curry). Roasted or fried goat brain is eaten in
south India and some parts of north India.
Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The
first problem is that the makeup of the brain is 60% fat due to the myelin
(which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia. As an
example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains
3500 milligrams of cholesterol, 1170% of our recommended daily intake.
Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies such as Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other prion
diseases in humans and mad cow disease in cattle. Another prion disease called
kuru has been traced to a funerary ritual among the Fore people of Papua New
Guinea in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to
create a sense of immortality. Some archaeological evidence suggests that the
mourning rituals of European Neanderthals also involved the consumption of the
brain.
It is also well known in the hunting community that the brain of wild animals
should not be consumed, due to the risk of chronic wasting disease.
Brain energy consumption
Enlarge picture
PET Image of the human brain showing energy consumption
The neurons of the brain require a lot of energy. Although the brain represents
only 2% of the body weight, it receives 15% of the cardiac output, 20% of total
body oxygen consumption, and 25% of total body glucose utilization. The energy
consumption for the brain to simply survive is 0.1 calories per minute, while
this value can be as high as 1.5 calories per minute during crossword
puzzle-solving. The demands of the brain limit its size in many species.
Molossid bats and the Vespertilionid Nyctalus spp. have brains that have been
reduced from the ancestral form to invest in wing-size for the sake of
manoeuverability. This contrasts with fruit bats, which require more advanced
neural structures and do not pursue their prey
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A defining moment in internet
gaming history was when a group of gamers called (hygo 7) decided to start an
ultimate game forum, which they named
hygo.com. It has the best financial backing, the friendliest game community,
and the highest quality of information. Currently Hygo.com has entered a new
phase...Hygo.com is offering the best private server game. With thousands of
members, Hygo.com is your next place to visit, as they have an amazing game with
a community and economy.
Hygo.com - The Online Adventure Game. is definitely one of the top sites you
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EZud is another popular site.
ezud.com. It has the best runescape bug abuse, bugs and trik.
ezud.com - The runescape bugs. is definitely one of the best sites you want
to join right now!
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